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PUBLICATIONS ON THE CINEREOUS VULTURE IN CRIMEA, UKRAINE
Appak, B.A. 1992. MODERN STATUS OF THE BLACK VULTURE POPULATION IN THE CRIMEA.
In: [Protection and study of rare and endangered animal species in Nature Reserves]. M., 1992. Pp.77-87. In Russian. (The Crimean State Nature Reserve-Hunting Farm)
Listed in the Red Data Books of the RSFSR and Ukrainian SSR Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus L.) is belonging to the group of birds of prey, those existence is impossible without human interference, in the modern conditions. It is necessary to conduct a special programs on their conservation (Galushin, 1982), and exact data about peculiarities of ecology of these birds, their numbers and reasons, affected its decreasing, must be laid in the base of which. There is not such data in native literature, unfortunately. After setting up the Crimean Nature Reserve, the Black Vulture was object for study for several researchers, first of them was M.P.Rozanov (1931). Under his observations since 1917 there were two nests on the south-eastern slopes of the Chernaya (Black) mountain. Author describes nests, behaviour of adult birds near nest, writes about approximate dates of egg-laying. Scientific employee of the Crimean Nature Reserve M.P.Akimov (1940) continued that work, during two years observing for colony of Vultures on the Sinabdag mountain ridge. M.P.Akimov gives more detailed data about height of nests above ground and above sea level, sizes of nests, dates of egg-laying, hatching and development of chicks. The especial value of work, according to our opinion, is in that there are data about numbers and breeding success of colony. Yu.V.Kostin (1983) gives data about nesting of five-eight pairs of Black Vultures on all territory of Nature Reserve-Hunting Farm (further - NRHF), sizes of nine nests and ten eggs. The total numbers of Black Vultures in the Crimea is estimated by Yu.V.Kostin in 60 birds.
Author of present paper, studying Black Vulture since 1987 till 1990, had possibility to estimate the modern numbers of Black Vultures in the Crimea in comparison with 1940 and its changes, taken place for last decades, to clearing reasons, influencing on population numbers decreasing. Aim of present work - to lay a base for subsequent monitoring of species in the Crimea.
Material and methods
Work was conducting, mainly, in the Crimean NRHF; besides that, excursions and trips were in the Yalta Mountain-forest Nature Reserve, the Alushta and the Sudak forestries. Study of the Black Vultures numbers was conducting on methods, elaborated by V.I.Osmolovskaya and A.N.Formozov (1952), taking into account peculiarities of census of birds of prey in mountains (Abuladze, 1989). The main principle of such work is concluded in conducting of prolonged visual observations from the constant points with good vision. Totally 920 hours observations for Vultures were conducted, among which 126 hours during period of incubation and 521 hours during period of chicks rearing up. Authors searched nests of Vulture, looking through binoculars sites of possible nesting. From the great distance, nest looks as a light spot on the top of pine with dark point in the middle, if bird is sitting on the nest. All nests were numbered. Observations for nesting birds were conducted in the Crimean NRHF, mainly, on the control nest, on the slope of the Chernaya mountain, during three-five days in succession. For study of Vulture's feeding, collection of pellets on the control nest and on the ground under other nests took place. Totally under observation in 1987 there were 3 nests, in 1989 - 5 nests and in 1990 - 6 nests.
Head of nature-conservation department of NRHF E.A.Savin assisted us in determination of pellet's composition that for author is very thankful to him. Totally 22 pellets were analyzed. The percentage of foods was determined by number of sightings of wool or feathers of certain species. During period of studies, censuses of Vultures on watering-place, attracting-place from meat remainders and carrion were carried out. We covered attracting-place from meat remainders by fell of wild boar, that meat was not pecked by Ravens. Vultures could reach a meat, raising slightly fell. Besides that, all cases of Vulture's great concentrations in other situations were registered by author. Interrogation of workers of NRHF, poultry farms, rabbit-farms and garbage dumps in the Alushta and Simferopol cities.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Black Vulture - resident bird of Crimea, doing feeding migrations within Crimean peninsula. The Black Vulture numbers in nesting sites on territory of Nature Reserve-Hunting Farm in winter is decreasing considerably. Mainly, these birds are solitary ones, or small groups. 24-48 % of BV population begin to breed. They are nesting only on territory of the Crimean NRHF. These data are confirming by Yu.V.Kostin (1983) and M.M.Beskaravainyi (1990). BV are appearing in the nesting sites in January (Kostin, 1983), according to our data - at the end of February. In this time they are soaring by pairs near of nests, joining together in one flock for a short time, sometimes sitting on the ground on the open plots of the Chernaya mountain slopes. We did not observe display flights in BV, only sometimes bird pairs fly by synchronous flight near each of other and once, at the first decade of April, one of birds after such flight, imitated attack on the partner from below, turning over "head over heels" in the air, simultaneously producing a peculiar scream. Totally there were three such "attacks". Kiselev observed copulation on the nest 07.03.1930 (by Akimov, 1940). We observed copulation in conditions of captivity 16.02., 17.03.1989 and 16.03.1990. Copulation duration - 15-20 sec.
BV's nests in the Crimea are setting up on pines, mainly. Yu.V.Kostin (1983) points on BV's nesting on beeches in the clear beech forest, however we did not found such nests. Majority of nests, known for us, were setting up on the pine-trees, and only one - on the juniper (Juniperus foetidissima Willd.).
The main part of conserving presently nests are located on pines, growing on slopes of southern and south-east exposition. This is not connected, according to our opinion, with necessity to use by BV termic flows of air, earlier appearing in the morning on the warming slopes (Kostin, 1983)
This is connected with that southern slopes are more scree and lesser accessible, than northern ones. Here the disturbance factor: unorganized tourism, forestry works are affecting on the nesting BV in lesser extent. This is confirmed by that BV, approaching to the nest or flying away from it, use the active flapping flight with planning and never reach a height by soaring above nest. Besides that, there are nests, situated on slopes of northern exposition of the Konek mountain ridge, in upper parts of the Yanisu River, and also endangered (vanished) presently nests in region of Tsarskie Vorota (Imperial Gates), Bolshaya Polyana (Great Plain) and on the northern slopes of the Chernaya mountain (Kiselev, by Kostin, 1983). Altitude of nests above sea level is from 650 up to 1300 m. Average sizes of nests (n=9): D=130-200 cm, d=40-70 cm, H=50-100 cm, h=15-35 cm (Kostin, 1983). Sizes of nest on the juniper: D=108 cm, d=54 cm, H=24 cm. Height above ground - 3 m 75 cm. Supposition of M.P.Akimov (1940), that old nests are larger than the young ones, In the Crimea was not confirmed. Sizes of nest, which is at least 53 years old, are not differed from the a.m. sizes, described by Yu.V.Kostin. The building nest material is changing constantly: lower part of nest is rotting and falling off, the upper part is additionally repairing and finish building annually. The large heaps of rotting building material are accumulated under the old nests. Nest repairing is finishing by beginning of March, and part of repaired nests later will not be occupied. Thus, BV pair keeps for them several nests. Even in 1988, when Vultures did not nest, a part of nests was repaired. If nest is lost, so during 2-3 years it is going to ruin completely. M.P.Akimov (1940) observed for building of a new nest. Vultures put the building material on the pine, that was neighbouring to the nesting one. During our observations, one pair of BV also put twigs on the neighbouring pine, however nest was not finished. The minimum height of living nests above ground during period of studies was 10 m. Nesting litter, mainly, is formed by bundles of grass, torn up by the roots. Wool of ungulates and bird feathers in litter (Kostin, 1983) seem us as a pellets, trampled by BV.
There is on egg in the clutch, which is laying at the beginning-middle of March. In nests, situated in upper parts of the Ulu-Uzen River, egg-laying takes place on 10-15 days later, than in other places. It is probable this is connected with later snow cover coming off and with frequent fogs, penetrating to gorge from the Southern coast of the Crimea. Both birds take participation in incubation (Akimov, 1940). 126 hours of observations were spent by us for incubating birds, but partner replacement on the nest we never observed. One time per day, in the morning or evening hours, partners were approached to the incubating birds, sat on the nest for a several minutes and flew away. There was not bird replacement. Once we observed, how incubating bird was rushing to the approaching one, evidently asking a food, however there was not feeding or belching on the nest. Incubation density during observations formed 100 %. Bird incubates, turning by back to the sun, during the light day 9-12 times raises from egg, stretches one's legs, turning egg, rolling it under itself. Bird as if "rolles" egg in the nest, incubating in different parts of tray. During incubation, we observed, as partner of incubating bird bring in bill bundle of litter. Incubation is lasting 55 days (Kiselev, by Kostin, 1983).
Hatching of nestlings is going at the end of April -May (Kostin, 1983). In 1989 nestling hatching was beginning 15 May, in 1990 - 4 May. We observed the nestling feeding during 468 hours on the control nest, besides that, the periodical observations for other nests took place. Both parents take part in warming of nestling, however female spent spend main part of time on the nest. Warming of nestling during night time is lasting during 30-40 days, and female warm in 88,9 % cases, male - in 11,1 %. If bird will be frightened off from nest in the evening time, so it will not come back for roosting on the nest. We observed, how female, frightened off from the nest, did not return to warm nestling of two weeks age till morning. Only female warm nestling during day time. (It is possible to distinguish male from female in the field conditions by the light colouring of head, head of young bird - black). After that, how parents stopped to warm nestling, it constantly is situated in their field of vision. In case, when Ravens are sitting down on the nest or approaching to it, one of adult birds is dropping on the nest and drive away Ravens by blows of wings. Ravens are attracting by remainders of food. Ravens did not attempts to attack on nestling. Raven's behaviour is very careful in the Vulture's nest. Semi-aged (juvenile bird) nestling drive away Ravens from nest itself. In case of foul weather - strong rain, hail - adult bird flies to the nest and covers nestling. During strong rains its head, wings and tail are powered in that way, that water is trickled down form becoming wet plumage. At the age of 1,5 months, adult Vultures don't cover nestling by own body even during strong rain or hail. During the first time after chick hatching, adult bird sit on the nest in that way, that chick situated in the shadow constantly. Grown chick during its feeding also tries to be in the shadow from adult bird. We observed only once replacement of parents, that was accompanied by ritual movements, touching (Preening) by bill each other. Usually birds leave a nest long before partner flying to the nest. At the beginning of rearing up of chick, male flew to the nest after female departure and situated there, don't warm chick, during 1,5-3 hours. Both parents take part in feeding up (rearing) of chick. On the control nest, female fed chick 58,8 % feedings, male - 41,2 %. During the first 1,5 months birds feed chick from 1 up to 5 times per day, later number of feeding dropping to one, sometimes two, and only one day feeding was absent at all. As far as female must be situated in the nest, male bring food, later birds bring food in turn, approximately by the equal "portions". In that time, in contrast to the data of Yu.V.Kostin (1983), feeding was going, mainly, since 12 till 15 o'clock. Adult birds, excluding those, which protect (guard) nestlings, fly away for a food by all colony. We repeatedly observed the simultaneous arrival of Vulture's flock before nestling's rearing (feeding). Feeding in evening is observing very seldom. Adult feed nestlings from bill to bill, only sometimes, when chick can not swallow immediately large piece, adult bird belch it on the nest and later, tearing off small pieces, feed it to chick. Both parents give to drink chick. The hungry chick behaves itself more often with restraint, asking food, approaching to adult bird, often opening bill and producing a peep. Sometimes a chick, producing loud peep and hoarse scream, begins to peck adult bird for legs, probably, quite strongly, because the latter drives away it by bill. We did not observe bringing of food in the bill or legs as well as previous researchers (Akimov, 1940), however on the nests animal bones were discovered, which could not be swallowed by adult birds. In period of chick's rearing, parents sometimes bring dry grass in the bill for litter, besides that, we discovered broken off stems with immature (ripeless) fruits Asphodeline lutea L. in the nest. If one of parents is lost, the rest adult bird continues to rear chick (Rozanov, 1931). At the age of 23 days we observed the first unsuccessful attempts of chick to stand up on the foot and independently to tear off a meat. At the one month age chick begins to flap by wings, and at the age of 1,5 month confidently to stand up on the foot. In two months after hatching chick begins to go out on the nest edge, independently to tear off a meat. Before fledging from the nest, chick flaps by wings often, jumping up on the one site and as if trying to take off. In attempt of man to climb up a nest, chick delivers blows by wings, trying to knock down visitor from the nest, and only after that it hiding. Adult birds don't defend chick from man. Flying out of chicks is going since the second half of August and in September. In 1990 chicks begin to fly off nests 7 August. Behaviour of adult birds near nest is different. Vultures, which nested near roads, noticing a man, immediately leave a nest and for a long time don't come back to the nest. Birds, which are nesting in sites, which are visiting by man very seldom, allow us to approach a man very closely. We carried out observations near such nests without masking. When chick was grown up, that pair has become more careful.
We observed twice the roosting of adult birds. One bird 20.06.1988 roosted on the top of pine, growing near rocks foothills in upper parts of the Ulu-Uzen River. The second time we observed, how male from the control nest, roosted on the horizontal branch of drought tree not far from nest. Bird arrived for roosting at 19 o'clock, departured at 7 o'clock in the morning.
The main flight in Vulture - mixed, when active flapping flight (from 3 to 5 flapps) is alternating with gliding. Vultures use such flight in the calm, windless weather, or leaving the nest. They conduct arrival to nest by the character way, with sharp loss of height. Wings are tucked in, tail is lifted up at an angle of 45 degrees, head lifted up, foot are stretched ahead (Akimov, 1940). Descent is going in a spiral and is accompanied by noise. Vultures use the active flapping flight very seldom. Only once for all time of observations, adult bird has flown from the nest by such flight, doing at the least 5- flapps by wings with a frequency two flaps per second. Gaining height by Vultures by means of ascending air flows - rare phenomena, is conducting by the bird flock usually. Basicly, Vultures air flows, flowing round the mountain slopes. During such flight birds sometimes lower wings down abruptly (sharply). In such cases Vultures are circling, during their flight shape of their wings is changing in dependence on flight before the wind and against the wind. M.P.Akimov (1940) pointed that Vultures avoid fly in fog, however we observed, that Vultures approach to the nest during the strong fog too. Defense of Vultures during their flight against other birds is very peculiar. We have seen, how the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug Gray) attacked on Vultures, when they flew through closely to their nest. When Saker has attacked Vultures from above, Vulture has stood wings vertically, trying to deliver a blow by upper wing. In strong wind Vultures can hang on one place, and in that time their wings were bent and accentuated.
Moulting of adult birds is beginning, obviously, with beginning of nesting period. During nest repair we discovered the fresh-came out primaries in the nests. 6.07.1989 in one of adult birds of the control nest two secondaries in one wing were came out. In other bird 10.07.1989 in the both wings in one secondary were came out. Replacement of small contour feathers in conditions of captivity is going in August and September.
M.P.Akimov (1940), researched Vultures in the Crimea before the last war, pointed, that they fed only by dead sheep, which were pastured on the Nitiskaya and Babuganskaya "yaila"s (open plain treeless plot in the mountains). After annexation of this territory to the Crimean NRHF in 1973 the sheep pasture on "yaila" was prohibited, that has undermined the feeding base of Vultures. Presently the sheep pasture on "yaila"s is forbidden completely in the Crimea, including areas outside the protecting ones. It is naturally to suppose, that vultures became to eat carcasses of deers, wild boars and roe deers (Kostin, 1983). However, that was not happened. Carcasses of wild animals formed 22,3 % in the feeding of Black Vulture during the nesting period, among which the carcasses of only hares (Lepus europeaus) occupied the considerable place (18,9%). Probably, that can be explained by sharp decreasing of numbers of grey hares.... as result of mass loss during period of study. In the Caucasia the hare wool was discovered only once (Vinogradov, 1963). Among other wild animals in pellets the wool of roe deer was registered - 1,7 %, wild boar - 2,7 %, the fish scales was registered in one of pellets - 2,7 %. Carcasses of domestic animals formed 73,7%, the greater part of birds were fed on the rabbit-farms and poultry-farms, they ate the dead sheep too. On the rabbit-farm of collective farm "Dubki" of the Simferopol Region, Vultures in the mixed flock with Griffon Vultures -Gyps fulvus (Hablizl) - by total numbers in 40 birds periodically fed by carcasses of rabbits during last five years. Birds were appearing on the farm in April. Probably, Vultures visit farms and poultry farms simultaneously, because they reject the mixed pellets, consisted of the rabbit's wool and hen's feathers. Judging on sightings of the hen feathers in pellets (24,3 %), carrion has a great significance in the feeding of Black Vultures on poultry farms. Wool of sheep and rabbit has formed in 16,2 %, of domestic pig and horse - totally in 2,7 %. Vulture's feeding by carcasses of domestic animals may be explained by inaccessity of carcasses of wild animals. We discovered carcasses of deers, roe-deers, moufflons in the Crimean NRHF, mainly in secluded corners: under cover of dense forest, in gullies, under precipices, under roots of fallen trees and in the rivers-beds. in 1989 in Nat. Res.-Hunt. farm the loss of 21 deers and 8 moufflons was registered, all carcasses were inaccessible for Vultures. The exclusions also take place, when wild animals perish on the open places; so, for instance, in August 1989 on the Babuganskaya "yaila" 6 deers have perished owing to thunder-clap (blow of lightning). Sometimes wounded game animals are perishing on the open sites. Such carcasses are utilizing by Vultures and other necrophages.
We could not fix visiting of Black Vultures to the garbage dumps, however data about that were coming to us. Obviously, Vultures are feeding on garbage dumps irregularly, sooner in exclusive cases. So, in spring 1990 on the garbage dump of Alushta city the wounded Vulture was feeding. Among other foods, that were not above-mentioned, eating of dead Swans was recorded. Swans were frozen to the ice in district of Lebyazh'i Ostrova (Swan's Islands) (N.A.Tarina, oral commun.). Besides that, in 1989 5 Vultures ate carcass of dog not far from the Mramornoe village in Simferopolskiy district. We did not observe Vulture's attacks living animals. Vulture's feeding by carrion exclusively is confirming by ten-years observations in Kazakhstan (Fadeev, 1984).
Worsening of the feeding base must affect negatively
on the reproduction of Vulture's population. If in 1935-19436 in nesting colony, described by Akimov (1940), on the Sinabdag mountain ridge and Chernaya mountain 9 nestling left nests (4,5 per year), so in the same colony for 4 years of our investigations 7 nestlings left nests (1,75 per year), so flying out of nestlings has dropped in 2,57 times. As a whole, on territory of NRHF for last decade number of nesting pairs from 5-8 (6,5) down to 3-6 (4,5). Thus, numbers of nesting pairs has dropped in 1,44 times.
Conditions of food getting affect Vulture's numbers decreasing. Presently birds have to do the far feeding migration in contrast to previous years. So, in the last years vagrant Vultures appeared in regions of the Karasevka settlement of the Nizhnegorskiy district, the Portovoe settlement of the Razdolnicheskiy district and the Dubki village of the Simferopolskiy district, at the distance from 30 to 200 km. During vagrant flights outside NRHF and other protecting territories, a danger of negative anthropogenic influence is increasing: shooting of Vultures, their loss during eating of poisoned rodents in agro-landscapes etc. The feeding competition with Griffon Vulture affect Black Vulture numbers dropping too. Impact of this factor is increasing simultaneously with decreasing of Black Vultures number. Griffon Vultures, in contrast to Black Vultures, seek food collectively and are collecting on the carrion sooner. If Black Vulture in small group occupies dominating position above Griffon Vultures (Konig, 1974), so, when Griffon Vultures are concentrating in a great flock, they don't let them have a prey and so rapidly eat a carrion, that nothing is leaving for Black Vultures. So, we observed, how 33 Griffon Vultures and 5 Black Vultures have eaten a carcass of deer with weight about 100 kg for 1,5 hours.
Influence of climatic conditions on BV breeding was not studied earlier. Yu.V.Kostin (1983) considered, that BV lay eggs without visible connection with nesting conditions and general current of spring. However, according to our observations, in years with late, abundant snow-falls BV don't nest at all. So, 5 March 1989 a height of fresh-fallen snow was 117 cm in region of nesting. On the nest in upper parts of the Ulu0-Uzen River 30 March still did not melt a snow, trampled by birds. BV pairs were occurred near nests, repaired it, however they did not become to nest in no one of 18 nests, known for us. As regarding other climatic factors (heavy shower, hail), so its negative influence on breeding BV is possible during egg incubation and warming of chicks, in case of bird disturbance. In this time BV sit very closely (tightly) and don't leave a nests practically. If to scare off the adult birds from nest, so they don't come back for a long time. A danger of loss of clutch or nestling due to over-cooling or over-warming is appearing. Bird, scaring off nest in evening, doesn't come back for roosting in the nest. Disturbance is especially dangerous during flying out of young BV from the nest. In autumn 1989 forester of NRHF, making one's round, has frightened off BV fledgling, which was sitting on the open plot. Birds, still can not fly, has taken off and struck with tree, as result of that, it has lost capability to fly. Disturbance, is probably, one of reasons, why BV are nesting only on protecting territory and only on slope with very high steepness, where any forestry works are impossible. The negative influence of anthropogenic character on the BV numbers can be expressing in their direct persecution too. We know several cases when BV were shot with purpose to make stuffed birds. All this complex of reasons is coming to BV numbers decreasing in the Crimea.
Yu.V.Kostin (1983), estimating concentrations of BV on the carrion, considered, that total their numbers in the Crimea in period since 1960 till 1980 consisted of 60 birds. The largest concentration of BV (28 birds) was recorded by us in the Barlakosh "urochishche" (plot) on territory of NRHF in autumn 1987. In 1989 in nesting region we observed repeatedly flock of 12 BV. 13 non-breeding BV were recorded by us in the Khapkhal game reserve at 20 km from nesting site. These birds did not participate in breeding that is confirming by fact - they did not fly away to the nesting sites for feeding chicks. 5 BV pairs were nested in this year, in which 4 fledglings left nests successfully. Thus, in autumn 1989 totally 29 birds were in the Crimea. In winter 1989/90 among 29 BV three birds were perished - one wounded bird, fed on garbage dump, has perished 29 February 1990, two dead birds were discovered by master of NRHF Mr.Galko and forester Mr.Shabalin. In 1990 6 BV pairs participated in breeding. 19 April, when incubating birds don't leave nests, flock of 13 non-breeding birds came to region of Chernaya mountain, and later the partners of incubating BV, joined to them. Thus, in period of incubation, numbers of BV was equal 25 birds. In autumn 1990 after successful flying out of 6 young birds, the total numbers of BV in the Crimea has reached 31 birds. Numbers of BV in period of our investigations fluctuated between 25 and 31 birds, that forms, in comparison with data of Y.V.Kostin (1983), 41,7-51,7 %. In average the total numbers of BV in the Crimea has dropped for last decade in 2,14 times. If earlier in cases of the greatest concentrations on the carrion with Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) BV formed 60-70 %, so in 1989 in such flocks, according to our observations, quantity of BV formed 27-36%. Simultaneously with stable numbers of Griffon Vultures, numbers of BV dropped in average in 2,1 times.
From all above-mentioned, it can be seen, that decreasing of BV population numbers is going by quick rates, and without arrangement of urgent measures, this species in the Crimea can be vanished. These measures must be directed to elimination of reasons, which provoke numbers dropping, and adopting of urgent measures on their restoration. In the first turn, this is organizing of additional feeding and exclusion of disturbance factor. The positive result of organizing of winter additional feeding is existing already, because, as a result of organization of winter additional feeding in the Kirghiz State Hunting Farm, four pairs of BV have occupied nests that were empty before (Shalna, 1983).
CONCLUSION
BV numbers in the Crimea is decreasing sharply. Possibility of their complete vanishing is not excluded. Reasons of this phenomena are concluding in worsening of feeding base, disturbance, shooting, insufficient responsibility for BV killing. With the purpose of this species conservation in the Crimea it is suggested:
1) to increase responsibility for BV persecution;
2) to include conducting of the all-year-round additional feeding of birds-necrophages into the plan of biotechnical measures of the Crimean NRHF;
3) don't allow conducting of forestry works near BV nesting sites, exclude disturbance of BV in breeding period;
4) to organize the constant monitoring of this species;
5) to organize on the base of the Crimean NRHF a centre on BV reproduction in captivity.
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Kostin, Yu.V. 1983. BLACK VULTURE (Aegypius monachus L.)
In: [Birds of the Crimea]. Moscow, 1983. In Russian.Pp.61-63.
BV - resident bird. BV nests in the mountain-forest Crimea. In the cold time of year it constantly visits the south shore and northern foothills, very seldom vagrants in steppe up to surroundings of the Sivash Lake.
Nests in present time are known only from territory of the Crimean Nature Reserve, though region of possible nesting covers all belts of high-stem forests of the Main chain of mountains.
Nesting habitat - steep, often detritous slopes of mountains with old trees, more often this is group of pines among deciduous forests, but BV is nesting in the clean beech forest too. During nesting it occupies the upper belt of mountains from 650 up to 1300 m above sea level. The feeding biotope (habitat) is different, but, as a rule, this is open and semi-open area.
In the Crimean Nature Reserve this is usual, constantly sighting bird. During last 20 years (1960-1980) 5-8 pairs are breeding annually. On the feeding nomadic movements it is occurring on all mountain-forest Crimea. Judging on concentrations of BV on the carrion, the total their numbers in the Crimea can be estimated in 60 exemplars at least, those greater part - non-breeding birds.
All data on breeding were collected in the Crimean Nature Reserve (Rozanov, 1931; Akimov, 1940, our data from 9 nests). Pairs are constant. Male and female are living together all year round. Attachment to the nesting plot is expressed well. Nesting plot is leaving by birds only during unfavorable feeding conditions. Since the middle of January birds are keeping near nest even in relatively cold weather and deep snow cover.
Separate pairs are breeding no every year, obviously, because in some nests, where birds were kept all winter and in spring, their eggs were not discovered. There are not observations for building of nests, usually one of existing nests is using. Kiselev observed repair of nest 20 February 1928. Tray is repairing during all nesting period. Copulation was observed 7 March 1930 already when egg was laid (Kiselev). By Akimov, copulation take place on the nest, its duration is about one minute. Before copulation and during it, both birds shake and flap by fluffed up wings, female produces hissing sounds. Breeding dates are considerably different in different pairs and in different years. In 1918 in one of nests egg was laid between 23 March and 8 April (Akimov). By Rozanov, egg laying is going at the end of March, Akimov on the base of own observations dates it by the beginning of March. According to our observations, egg is laying in different dates of March (3-31) without visible connection with nesting conditions and general current of spring.
Nest is located, as a rule, on slopes of eastern and south-eastern expositions, that, probably, is connected with necessity to use of thermic air flows by Vultures. Such thermics are developing earlier of all in the morning on slopes, warming by sun. Nest is situating in the large, but not always in the high trees, mainly, pines, and in beech also. Nesting plots are very stable. In the Crimean Nature Reserve sites are known, where Vulture are nesting during 40-60 years. Place of nest situation can change within limits of one nesting plot, and some observations speak about that one and the same plot may be occupied by different pairs in case of loss of or both birds-hosts. In some cases one pair has 3-4 nests, located near one of other and occupying in turn.
Nest is situating always on the top of tree. Height of nest above ground from 5-6 up to 25-30 m. Sizes of nest (9): D-130-200, d-40-70, H-50-100, h-15-35. Zubarovskiy [1977} gives the following sizes of two many-year nests: D-213-245, d-50-54, H-86-101, h-5-6. The nest's fundament consisted of dry branches and twigs, a tray is lining with smaller twigs, scraps of ungulate's wool, feathers of different birds are occurring in a tray not seldom.
Clutch consist of one egg always. Sizes of egg (10): 84,0-104,0 x 64,0 -72,0; mean - 92,8 x 69,3. Weight of almost fresh eggs (2): 230 and 270. According to Zubarovskiy [1977], weight of strongly incubated egg - 223,6. Duration of incubation - 55 days (Kiselev). Both birds incubate in turn, leaving nest only in case of danger. Chick hatching is going at the end of April and in May. Incubating bird and chick, in approaching of man, are hiding in the nest, pressing oneself to the tray. Sometimes old bird flew away from the nest only after that, how man begins to climb on the tree. During the repeated visits bird flies away in advance and doesn't approach to the nest until people go away. In the first month of life, parents don't leave a chick alone, protecting it from sun and bad weather, one-two times per day, and possible even more frequently, to change each other. Later parents fly away two (together) in the morning and come back in the evening, sometimes bringing food in afternoon hours. Chick is feeding by belching food. Bringing of prey in the bill or foot was not observed. Flying out of chick takes place at the second half of August, i.e. in 3,5-4 months after hatching [Akimov, 1940]. After that bird get possibility to fly, the young bird is keeping together with parents till late autumn. Sometimes, still in spring, in March, it is possible to see groups of three Vultures, one of which is a young bird of previous year.
The most different carrion is in their feeding, but detailed data are absent. In Nature Reserve Vulture feed on carcasses of deers, wild boars, roe deers and domestic animals.
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Shcherbak, N.N. 1994. Grif chorniy [Black Vulture].
In: Chervona knyga Ukrainy [Red Data Book of the Ukraine]. Kiev. "Ukrains'ka encyklopediya" Publ. P.335. In Ukrainian.
Taxonomical characteristics. The only species within genus; monotypical species.
Status. III category.
Distribution. Breeds only in the Southern Crimea. During feeding migrations sometimes visits northwards up to Chernigov Region. Breeding area of species covers the Southern Europe and Asia (mountain regions).
Natural habitats. Inhabits forest belt of mountains.
Numbers. The Crimean population consists of about 30 birds (mainly immatured, which are not breeding; 1954-1960 it consisted of 15-20 pairs, 1980 - 5-8, 1988 - 4-5 pairs).
Reasons of number changes. The food base decrease, disturbance factor increase in forests, extermination of birds by people, slow breeding.
Biology peculiarities. Resident bird. Breeds at the height 800-1000 m above sea level. Nest placed in tree; uses it during many years. Pairs are constant. Lays one egg at the end of March - at the beginning of April. Female and male incubate during 55 days. Chicks sit in the nest 3,5-4 months, leave nest at the second half of August - September. Necrophag (eats corps and carcasses of animals).
Breeding in captivity. Breeds at zoos of Kharkov, Mena (Chernigov Region) and Odessa.
Conservation measures. Listed in the Red Data Book of the Ukrainian SSR (1980) and European Red List (1991). It is under protection in the Crimean and Yalta Mountain-forest nature reserves. It's necessary to organize an additional feeding for birds, to protect each nest, including areas outside the borders of protected territories.
Information sources:
Puzanov, I.I., 1931; Rozanov, M.P. 1931; Puzanov, I.I., Nazxarenko, L.F. 1962; Zubarivskiy, V.M. 1977; Kostin, Yu.V. 1983; Redkie i ischezayushchie rasteniya i zhivotnye Ukrainy [Rare and endangered plants and animals of Ukraine], 1988.
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Appak, B.A. 1998. Sostoyanie populyatsiy nekrofagov v Krymu [Necrophages population status in the Crimea].
In: Kavkazskiy ornit. vestnik [Caucasian Ornith. Bulletin]. Vypusk 10. Stavropol. Pp.8-10.
Necrophages number in the Crimea invariably decreases. Main reasons - poor feeding base, unfavourable climatic conditions, death in poaching loops and on electric transmission lines, disturbance, shooting, trapping and many others. As a result, the Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus), to all probability, already has disappeared (Kostin, 1983), while the Black Vulture population situates on the edge of extinction. It's possible to save this population only by means of immediate carrying out of a series of measures, directed to stabilization, and later to the increasing of population number. First of all, this is additional feeding, conservation of nesting sites, creation of the genofond bank, by means of reproduction in captivity. The Griffon Vulture number is more stable, however, if influence of negative factors will not be eliminated, so these birds also will be in the Crimea under the threat of extinction. After organization of the Crimean Nature Reserve necrophages were a subject of observations of several generations of ornithologists. Author conducted researches since 1986 till 1997.
Aegypius monachus L.
About the Black Vulture breeding in Peninsula became known at the end of previous century (Senitskiy, 1898). At the present time this bird is one of the rarest birds in Ukraine an Crimea, those number catastrophically declines. Total number of BVs in the Crimea, judging by concentration on the carrion, declined from 60 (Kostin, 1983) to 31 (Appak, 1992), and, finally, to 15-14 specimens. Thus, for the last years number of these birds declined by 75,8%. Nests are known only in the territory of the Crimean Nature Reserve, where their number declined from 5-8 (on the average 6,5) pairs per year (Kostin, 1983), to 1,67 pairs in 1994 - 1996. Hence, nest number dropped by 74,31%. And their number dropped mainly in the centre of Nature Reserve on the Sina-bdag mountain ridge and on Chernaya [Black] Mountain. Reasons, determined the decline of BV population number in the Crimea are the following: late abundant snow falls, poor feeding base, disturbance, trapping and shooting. Feeding base has a special great importance in the existence of BV population. This base in the Crimea is mainly of the anthropogenic origin, as far as corps of domestic animals form in nesting period 73%. Changes of the feeding conditions cause sharp decline of the population number (Appak, 1992). At the present time the feeding base of necrophages worsened so strongly, that birds had to feed by remains of untypical small species, such like voles (Microtus arvalis Pallas) those mortality in the mountain part of the Crimea was in 1997 quite high. Deficit of food force birds to do nomadic migrations far outside the limits of nature reserve, that earlier was not recorded (Akimov, 1940). This increases probability of influence of above-mentioned reasons on population number. Decreasing of the feeding base and BV number increases role of the trophical competition with the Griffon Vulture.
Further existence of BVs population in the Crimea depends, first of all, on stability of food source. We consider that existing now methods of protection of rare animals in the Crimea are not able to save these birds from extinction. It's necessary to carry out concrete program, directed to stabilization and increasing of their number.
Gyps fulvus Hablitzl.
The Griffon Vultures - resident birds of the Crimea, which carry out feeding migrations. If in the last century their vagrant records were registered up to Sivash Lake (Kostin, 1983), so in 1935, 1936, 1979, 1980 they were recorded in the Chernomorskiy (Black Sea) Nature Reserve (Ardamatskaya, 1983). Rare vagrant records of these birds are known in Karadag Nature Reserve (oral commun. by M.M.Beskaravainyi), in the Kerch Peninsula (oral commun. by I.S.Stadnichenko), regular visit of poultry farms and farms in the Simferopol. Bakchisarai and Belogorskiy districts. Searching of food is conducting by Griffon Vultures collectively (Vitovich, 1985). This is confirmed by our observations too. They are concentrating on carrion considerably sooner, than their feeding competitors - Black Vultures. The Griffon Vultures in the Crimea during series of years are stably keeping within limits of 32-34 birds that can be explained in the search of food, nest location in niches of rocks, where they are less suffering of disturbance factor from logging and tourism and influence of unfavorable climatic factors, for example - the late snow falls. At the present time in the Crimea the breeding of 6 pairs is possible, that is 36,4% of population.
Literature.
Akimov, M.P. 1940. Koloniya chernogo grifa (Aegypius monachus) v Krymskom gosudarstvennom zapovednike [Colony of the Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus) in the Crimean State Nature Reserve]. // Trudy Krymskogo zapovednika [Proc. of the Crimean Nature Reserve], issue 2, p.217-227.
Appak, B.A. 1992. Sovremennoe sostoyanie populyatsii chernogo grifa v Krymu [Modern status of the Black Vulture population in the Crimea]. // Okhrana i izuchenie redkikh i ischezayushchikh vidov zhivotnykh v zapovednikakh [Conservation and study of rare and endangered animal species in Nature Reserves]. M. P.77-87.
Ardamatskaya, T.B. 1983. Orlan-belokhvost i belogolovyi sip v Chernomorskom zapovednike [The White-tailed Eagle and Griffon Vulture in the Black Sea Nature Reserve]. // Okhrana khishchnykh ptits (mater. pervogo soveshch. po ekologii i okhrane khishchnykh ptits.) [Conservation of birds of prey (mater. of 1st Meeting on Ecology and Conservation of Birds of Prey)]. M., Nauka.
Vitovich, O.A. 1985. Sravnitelnaya ekologiya borodacha i belogolovogo sipa [Comparative ecology of the Bearded Vulture and Griffon Vulture]. // Ptitsy Severo-zapadnogo Kavkaza [Birds of the North-Western Caucasia]. M. P.53-71.
Kostin, Yu.V. 1983. Ptitsy Kryma [Birds of the Crimea]. M., Nauka. P.61-63.
Senitskiy, A. 1898. K voprosu o nakhozhdenii chernogo grifa v Krymu [On question about the Black Vulture finding in the Crimea]. Sevastopol.
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APPAK, B.A. 2001. Chernyi grif v Krymu [The Cinereus Vulture in the Crimea]. / Berkut. Vol.10. Issue 1. Pp.52-62. In Russian.
B.A.Appak, Krasnoarmeyskaya str. 5/1, Alushta, the Crimea, 98500 Ukraine
1. Introduction.
Number of birds-scavengers, in the first turn of the Cinereus Vulture (Aegypius monachus), decreases seadily. The main reasons of that Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ worsening of food base, trapping, shooting, disturbance etc. The Crimean population of this bird is situated at the brink of extinction. ItЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅs possible to save it only by urgent conducting of series of measures, directed to stabilization, and then to the number increase. First of all, this additional feeding, conservation of nesting sites, establishment of the genefond bank by the way of CV reproduction in captivity. For carrying into life of these measures the deep knowledge of the species biology are necessary, based on many-year observations. The Crimean population of the CVs is unique by extent of their research level. The birds were situated under observation of collaborators of the Crimean Natural Reserve during more than 70 years. Author studied the peculiarities of CV ecology since 1987 till 2000.
2. Material and method
Research of billogy and number of CVs was carried out accoding to method of stationar (permanent) observations for birds of prey (Osmolovskaya, Formozov, 1952) with taking into account of peculiarities of similar studies in mountains (Abuladze, 1989). The main principle of method is concluded in the prolonged visual observations from the points with a good vision, which were carried out by Author during 920 hours. We searched the CV nests, looking via binoculars the sites of their possible nesting. From great distance they look by light spot on the pine-tree top, with black dot at the middle, if in the nest the bird is sitting. Observations for the CV nesting were carried out on two control nests: in upper reaches of Uluzen River and on the slopes of Chernaya mountain by method of daily observations during 3-5 days in turn. Totally 520 hours of such studies were carried out. Male from female was distinct visually, mainly by means of darker coloration of head. Young birds were distinct by means of black coloration, which with age to all probability is getting lighter. Some CVs of the Crimean population had light coloration, almost like in the Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus).
The CV feeding was studied in 1988, 1997, 2000 by way of pellet collecting on control nests and on the ground under other nests. Percent contents of food was determined by occurrence of fell or feathers of those or other species in pellets. The CV counts were carried out on water drinking site, bait (lure) consisting of meat remains and carrion. We covered the lure of meat remains by skin of wild boar avoiding took away meat bit by bit from the sides of the Ravens (Corvus corax). CVs extracted meat, slightly lifting skin. We used specially shot deer and also pig carcasses as a carrion.
Besides that other cases of big concentrations of CVs were registered as well. Interrogation of workers of nature reserve, poultry farms, rabbit farms and garbage dumps in the Alushta and Simferopol towns was carred out. Number of population was estimated, as by Yu.V.Kostin (1983), on the base of number of Cinereus Vultures, simultaneously registered at the biggest concentrations.
In identification of pellet composition the certain help was received from E.Savin, and collecting material on number and migrations of CVs Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ M.Beskaravainyi, V.Kinda, S.Kostin, S.Prokopenko, A.Polumeev, N.Tarina, and author is very grateful to all of them. Work was carried out, mainly, in the territory of the Crimean Natural Reserve.
3.1. Results and discussion
3.1. Migrations, flight
The Cinereus Vulture Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ resident bird of the Crimea, which conducts within peninsula the feeding migrations, connected with the presence of food at the certain sites. At the beginning of our studies during loss of waterfowl in Karkinitskiy Gulf in January 1987 at 150 km from nesting sites of CVs, by scientific collaborator of the Crimean Natural Reserve N.Tarina (pers. cmm.) the flock of these birds was recorded, which was feeding by corpses of Whooper Swans (Cygnus cygnus) which were frozen to ice. CVs were recorded also near Karasevka settlement in Nizhnegorskiy district. 19.08.1990 the pair of birds was flying above the center of Simferopol town. In the last years the data on records of CVs in the regions of the Crimean Peninsula distant from nesting grounds. Became to come much more frequently. Birds many times were observed on Karadag, in Bakhchisarai, Belogorskiy, Nizhnegorskiy, Sevastopolskiy, Sudakskiy and Chernomorskiy districts, and also in Kerchen Peninsula, and on Karadag 2 specimens stayed during whole winter 1998/1999 (pers. comm. of M.Beskaravainyi).
The main flight of CV Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ surveillance static soaring. The climbing with the use of thermics Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ quite rare phenomenon in mountains. Most often birds use the raising (climbing) air currents, flowing around mountain slopes. CVs also use dynamic soaring with the use of wind as well. At the same time birds soar by circles, changing form of wings. When CVs, doing a circle, fly against wind, wings are getting wide, ends (tips) of primaries are going aside, in the case of flight together with wind Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ wing tips are getting sharper. The mixed flight is typical for CVs too, when active flapping movements alternate with short-term gliding. In the case of such fight birds do from 3 to 8 wing beats.
CVs come to the nest always from above on the mountain slope, using specific fight with sharp loss of altitude. At this time wings are slightly bent, tail is raised under angle at 45o, head is slightly raised, legs are stretched ahead (Akimov, 1940). Descend under such flight goes according to spiral and is escorting by sound. They fly from the nest only down along slope. The CVs use active flapping flight very seldom. Only once for the whole period of studies birds has flown from the nest by such fight, doing at the same time at least 50 wing bears with frequency two flappings per second. M.P.Akimov (1940) points at that CVs avoid to fly in fog, however during nesting period they are able in the case of necessity to come to the nest also during dense fog. In strong wind the CVs can hover for a certain time at one place, and wings at this time are bent and pointed. During soaring the birds sometimes sharply lower wings down.
Defence of CVs in fight from other birds of prey is specific. So we observed, how Hobby has attacked them (Falco subbuteo), when the CVs flew near its nest. If falcon attacked the CVs from above, so the CVs kept wings vertically, trying to deliver a blow by upper wing.
Birds need certain space for running before take off from the ground. CVs try to run within the imits of the possible down along slope. Frightened saturated birds during take off belch food.
3.2. Breeding.
M.A.Menzbier (1895), after visit of the sites of the modern breeding of the vultures in the Crimea, considered the CV as a vagrant bird. It became known about CV breeding in peninsula only after publication of work of A.Senitskiy (1898). It is remaining unclear, whether the CVs did not nest here during expedition of M.A.Menzbier or their nests were not found simply. At the present time the species breeds only in the territory of the Crimean Natural Reserve.
At the nesting sites the Cinereus Vultures appear in January (Kostin, 1983), by our data Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ in the last decade of February. At this time (at the beginning of our studies) the pairs circled near nests, flying together for a short time in the general flock and again flying away to the nests, sometimes sitting on open plots of the steep slopes of the Chernaya mountain. We did not observe the display flights. Only sometimes partners fly synchronously near each from other. Once, in the first decade of April, one of birds imitated attack on the partner from below, overturning in air upwards by feet, issuing specific scream during that. Totally there were three such Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЂВ°attacksЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЂВІ However we observed similar imitation also in autumn during flight of the pair of birds with chick of this year. One of adult birds Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЂВ°attackedЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЂВІ partner from above, using described by M.P.Akimov (1940) type of fight, using during landing on the nest. Impression was formed, as if bird wanted to sit (land) on the partnerЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅs back, which, defencing itself, has turned over by feet upwards.
Nesting type at the beginning of our studies was the group one or single. M.P.Akimov (1940) considered it as the colonial one, however we observed no joint actions of birds, besides fights for food. There were not any collisions between pairs breeding in neighbourhood also. There is no joint defence against enemies due to practical their absence.
The nesting habitat Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ steep, pebble slopes of mountains, overgrown by old trees at the height from 650 to 1300 m a.s.l. tree vegetation consists of oak rare forest, rare parterres of juniper, hornbeam and pine (Rozanov, 1931). Nesting plots of CVs were situated mainly on the slopes of southern and south-eastern exposition. This, according to our opinion, is connected with not necessity of the use by CV of thermic currents (flows) of air, earlier developing in morning on the heating slopes (Kostin, 1983), but with the fact, that southern slopes of the Crimean mountains are more steep, from 30o and more (Akimov, 1940) and less available, than the northern ones. Here disturbance factors impact of breeding CVs is at lesser extent: unorganized tourism, different forest-practical works. In favour of this suggestion speaks the fact the earlier CV nests existed also on the northern slopes. At the present time there is only one non-living nest on the northern slope of Chernaya mountain in the center of nature reserve. Besides that, approaching to the nest or leaving it, the CVs never use raising (climbing) air currents, but they use active flapping flight with gliding.
Yu.V.Kostin (1983) supposed that CV pairs are constant. By our visual observations, in the control nest on Chernaya mountain during several years one and the same pair nested.
In the average 20,3% of the CV population begin to nest (Table 1). In the last years percent of breeding birds was reduced in comparison with the period of the beginning of our studies at 1,6 times. Non-breeding birds stay by separate flock. We recorded such concentration in Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЂВ°KhapkhalЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЂВІ Nature Reserve. Sometimes CVs which donЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅt participate in breeding arrive at nesting site and fly together with the breeding birds.
The nesting conservatism of the CVs is expressed clearly. Building of new nest was observed by M.P.Akimov (1940). Birds put building material in the pine-tree neighbouring to the nest-tree. During the period of our studies one breeding pair also carried dry branches on neighbouring pine-tree, however this nest was not built up completely. Repair of nests is finishing by the beginning of March, and the part of restored nests then was not occupied. Probably therefore, the separate pairs nest not each year (Kostin, 1983), or by this way the pair of CVs save several nests for them and occupy them in turn. Even in years, when CVs did not nest at all, the part of nests was repairing. Abandoned nest is destroying during 2-3 years.
Table 1
Relation of number of breeding birds to number of the population
Period Average numbers, Bred on average
individuals ind. %
1960-1983 60,0 13,0 21,7
1987-1989 29,3 6,8 23,2
1994-1996 14,5 3,2 22,1
1999-2000 14,0 2,0 14,3
---
1960-2000 29,5 6,3 20,3
In nesting litter there is grass torn off with roots, and also fell and feathers of animals from pellets trampled down by birds. All nests of the CV in the Crimea were placed in pine-tree tops and only one nest in stinking juniper. Its height above ground Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 3,75 m; sizes (here and further in cm): D=108 and d=54. Yu.V.Kostin (1983) records the CV nesting in beech, in the clean beech forest, however, we did not find such nests. Nest sizes (n=9): D=130-200, d=40-70, H=50-100 and h=15-35 (Kostin, 1983). In the last years the height of nest location above ground increased, in the average, from 6 (Akimov, 1940) to 10 m. Supposition of the cyted author that old nests are bigger than new nests were not confirmed by our observations. Conception Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЂВ°oldЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЂВІ applying to the CV nests is relative one at all, because the building material (dry branches and twigs) is changing constantly. Lower branches of nest are rottening and leaving down, upper part is building up additionaly annually. Under many-year nests sometimes big heaps of fallen down building material concentrate sometimes. The nest size, which is at least 50 years old, visually is not distinct from other nests. Size and form of construction depends on the top of pine-tree, on which the nest is located. If branches of the tree top are horizontal, so the nest is flat and wide. Sizes of such nest: D=235, d=93 and H-65. If top-tree branches grow under angle, so the construction will be high, sometimes slightly bevelled, with small diameter.
Copulation in the nest was observed 7.03.1930 (Akimov, 1940). We recorded copulation in captivity conditions in Alushta town 16.02 and 17.03.1989, and also 29.03.2000. During copulation, which took place on the ground and lasted 15-20 sec, male balanced by wings, and female issued quite strong calls.
In the clutch always there is one egg of the white colour, which appears at the beginning Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ middle of March, and in nests situated in the upper reaches of UluzenЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅ River egg-laying goes on at 10-15 days later, than at other sites. Probably, that is connected with later melting of the snow cover and frequent spring fogs, penetrating into gorge from the Southern Coast of the Crimea. Egg sizes (n=10): 84.0-104.0 x 64.0-72.0, average Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 92.8x69,3 mm; weight of almost fresh eggs: 230 and 270 g (Kostin, 1983)
Incubation lasts 55 days (Akimov, 1940). The cited author considered, that both parents incubate in turn, however we for 162 hours of observations for incubating birds never saw their replacements. In morning or evening hours, once per day, their partners approached incubating birds, sat on the nest for several minutes and have flown away. Once incubating bird has rushed to the arrived one, clearly asking food, however there was not feeding or belching food in the nest. In another time partner has brought the bunch of litter in bill. An impression is forming, that only female incubates, starving during that. However this supposition requires additional studies. CVs incubate very densely, they leave nest only in the extreme case, for example, during disturbance. Bird sits always by back towards sun. During the light day 9-12 times the bird carries out physical exercise and turns over egg, rolling it under herself.
Chicks appear at the end of April Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ May (Kostin, 1983). In 1989 hatching started 15.05, in 1990 Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 4.05. In day-time only female warms (heats) chicks. At nights, during 30-40 days, female Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 88,9%, male Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 11,1% of fixed roosts. We observed only once replacement of adult birds on the nest with accompaniment of ritual motions (touching each other by bill). Usually birds left nest for a long time before arrival of partners. At the beginning of feeding up male arrived on nest after femaleЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅs departure and situated in the nest during 1,5-3 hours. We did not observe frequent replacements of specimens. If bird in evening time will be flushed from the nest, so she is not able to return in the nest for whole night. So, female did not arrive to heat chick of two-week age. We recorded the roost of adult birds outside the nest: once bird roosted on the pine-top near rock footnote in upper reaches of UluzenЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅ River, second time male roosted on the horizontal branch of dried tree not far from the control nest on Chernaya mountain. Bird has arrived for roost at 19.00, has gone at 07.00.
After that as CVs stop to heat chick, the chick constantly is situated in the field of vision of parents. In the case, when Ravens approach the nest, one of adult birds at once sits in nest and drives away Ravens by wing beats. To all probability, the meat remains attract Ravens, because they did not do attempts to attack the chick and behaved themselves very carefully. Slightly grown chick drives away Ravens independently. In the case of bad weather (rain or hail) female arrives to the nest and covers (hides) chick. During strong rains the wings, head and tail of adult birds are lowered by the way, that water will stream down from the wet feathering. At the age of 1,5 months adult birds already donЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅt hide the chick even during strong rain with hail. After chick hatching in hot time of day adult bird sits in the nest by such way, that chick constantly was situated in its shadow. Grown young specimen during feeding also tries to situate in the shadow formed by adult bird.
Both parents participate in feeding up of chicks. In the first 1 and half month they feed it up to 5 times per day, then number of feedings decreases to one, seldom, two, and only in one day of observation feeding was absent completely. Until time, as female heats chick, male dominantly brings food, belches food in the nest, and female feeds chick by small Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЂВ°portionsЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЂВІ When chick will be grown up a little bit, adult birds carry food in turn, approximately in equal quantity. At this time 37 feedings were registered. Among them 58,8% fall down on female, 41,2% - on male. Feeding goes on, mainly from 12.00 till 15.00 and very rarely in evening, after 17.00. Adult birds flew for food by general flock, excluding bird, protected chicks. We repeatedly observed also their one-time arrival before feeding Adult birds feed chick from bill to bill. Sometimes, when chick is not able to swallow a big piece, parents belch it in the nest, and then, tearing off by small pieces, feed it to chick. Hungry chick behaves himself with restraint. The chick asks food, approaching adult bird, often opening bill, and issuing cheep. But sometimes, issuing hoarse scream, chick begins to peck adult bird for legs, probably quite strongly, because the last one drives away it by means of bill. After feeding the chick tries to creep under adult bird, forcing it to fly over onto neighbouring branches.
Like M.P.Akimov (1940), we never have seen that CVs brought a food in bill or in feet. However in nests we found animal bones, which could be swallowed hardly by birds. In the period of feeding up of chick, parents sometimes bring the grass bunches for litter. In the nests we found also broken stems with incompletely ripe seeds of Asfodelina. Behaviour of adult birds near nest is different. The CVs, nested not far from the road, after noticing people, at once (immediately) took off from the nest and did not return in it for a long time. The birds, which nested at sites rarely visiting by people, allowed people approach the nest closely. We carried out observations near such nest without hiding. When chick has grown up, this pair was getting more careful. During work of researcher on the nest, adult birds, flying at the great height, did not express alarm (disturbance), they did not try to protect chick. In the case of loss of one of parents, chick is feeding up by the remained bird (Rozanov, 1931).
The chick during hatching is covered by monotonous yellow down. In 1-month chick the sheaths of contour feathers begin to go through dense down, while primaries reach 3-4 cm (Akimov, 1940). At the age of 23 days we observed the first unsuccessful attempt of chick to stand up on legs. At the same time the chick tries independently tear off the meat, and at 1-month age it begins to flap by wings. 1,5-month chick freely stands up on legs. In the case of danger Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ it hides. In two months after hatching the chick already entire is covered by contour feathers, by bigger part still in sheaths, between which rare down juts out (Akimov, 1940). At this time it begins to come out on the edge of nest, independently tears off meat. Once the chick, catching litter (being fixed to litter by talons), has fallen down on the edge of nest, almost falling out from nest. During rain young CV hides in the nest-cup, and after that it flaps by wings and stretching wings, dries wings under sunny beams. In the case of people attempt to climb the nest the chick issues hissing and threats by bill and then hides. Before fledging from the nest the chick often beats by wings, jumping slightly at the site as if doing attempts to take off. Fledging of chicks goes on since the second half of August till the middle of September (Akimov, 1940). After fledging chicks remain in nesting region and nomade in the nest (Akimov, 1940; Vinogradov, 1963). Families donЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅt disintegrate till the next spring. We observed the CV pair on the repaired nest, near which the chick of previous year was situated. Probably, adult birds drive away the chick before egg-laying.
3.3. Feeding
The CV feeding is not studied in details. In literature, mainly, it is pointing, that the food for them is carrion, mainly, corpses of large animals (Dementiev, 1951), or data on feeding by them of remains of the certain species are giving. By the way, the determining factor of existence of the Crimean population of the CV, is just food base, which in the Crimea dominantly of anthropogenic origin (Appak, 1992). Even remains of wild animals are at the disposal of birds mainly owing to human activity.
Food for CVs can be the corpses of any animals as wild as well domestic animals, dead at the sites available for these birds. However the determinant in existence of population are constant sources of food. So, M.P.Akimov (1940) points at feeding of CVs only by died sheep, which were pastured at that time in a number on Nikitskaya and Babuganskaya yailas. After joining this territory to Nature Reserve in 1973, the sheep pasturing was prohibited here, that undermined the food base of CVs. After losing common easily available sources of food, the CVs were forced to be switched over to other food. Yu.V.Kostin (1983) points at their feeding in nature reserve by corpses of deers, wild boars, roe deers and domestic animals. However corpses of wild animals could not provide GVs with food completely. At the beginning of our studies in the pellets of these birds (n=37) in nesting period they formed only 27,0%, of which 18,9% were occupied by hare corpses. Taking into account unstable number of hares, such high percent of hare fell in pellets can be explained by the loss of European hares in the period of studies. In the Caucasia, for example, hare fell in pellets was discovered only once (Vinogradov, 1963). Besides that, in pellets there was a fell of other wild animals Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ roe deer, wild boar, and also scales of fish (in all cases up to 2,7%). Corpses of wild animals usually are unavailable to CVs. We found them in convenient sites of nature reserve: under cover of forest, in ravines, under precipices, under roots of trees that are fallen down, in river beds. Food for CV can serve only corpses of wild animals, died on open places. For example, in August 1989 on Babugan yaila six deers were died due to blow of lightning. Sometimes on open places wounded animals find the end.
Carcasses of domestic animas formed 73,0% in CV feeding at the beginning of our studies. The main base of the ration were the kinds of food, eating on poultry farms and rabbit-farms Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 51,4%. Judging by occurrence in pellets of feathers of domestic birds (29,8%), carrion on poultry farms had at the beginning of our studies the decisive significance in feeding of the Crimean population of the CV. Fell of rabbits made up 21,6%. At rabbit farm of Soviet farm Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЂВ°DubkiЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЂВІ of Simferopol district the CVs and Griffon vultures by mixed flock at 40 birds regularly were feeding by rabbit corpses since 1984 till 1989. Fell of domestic sheep made up 16,2%, domestic pig and horse Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ totally with 2,7% records (in each case).
By the year 1997 corpses of rabbits and pigs have disappeared in the CV feeding, for the reason of closing of large rabbit-farms and decline of pig-farms. So, in the year 1995 subsidiary farm not far from Verkhnyaya Kutuzovka settlement of Alushtinskiy district was closed completely, where we regularly recorded feeding CVs. At 1,8 times occurrence of Galliformes birds reduced in pellets. The main place in the CV feeding again was occupied by dead sheep. Carcasses of new species of domestic animals appeared such one as cows and goats, which were getting met much more in subsidiary farms, and also dogs, whose number, including stray dogs and completely wild dogs, in subsequent years has increased strongly. The number of species of wild animals for the period of studies increased at 1,8 times. However by 1997 from the composition of pellets the fell of large ungulates has disappeared completely, that is explaining by sharp decline of their number, including protected territory. For example, deer number in the Crimean Natural Reserve by 1997 reduced from 1056 to 410 specimens, moufflons Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ from 283 to 98, counts of wild boars in nature reserve in those years was not carried out, however their occurrence also deceased sharply.
In 1997 in feeding of birds corpses of untypical small species of wild animals appeared, that convincingly points at the shortage of food base CVs were forced to feed by remains of such animals, as voles, whose mortality in the mountain part of the Crimea in 1997 was very high. Fell of hares recorded in this year, and also fell of Marten and Badger, which have been discovered in pellets, probably as a result of eating of corpses of mammals trapped by loops that many times was recorded in the last time. Appearance in pellets of migratory birds feathers is connected with their loss in late spring (with frosts and snow-falls) 1997.
In the year 2000 the pellet composition (n=82) was the following. Corpses of wild animals were 18.5%, that at 8,5% lower than at the beginning of our studies. Among them the partial (specific) number of hare corpses Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 12,3%, badgers Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 2,5%, foxes, hedgehogs, and also fish -1,2%. Corpses of domestic animals in CV feeding was 81,0%. The base of food again was those, eating at poultry farms (hen carcasses) Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 50,6%. Fell of domestic seep was 21,0%, domestic cat Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 3,7%, dog and goat Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 2,5% for each species, horse Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 1,2%.
During conducting counts, putting out the shot deer for the bait (lure), we have note that in the first day of observations the CV did not eat fresh meat. Doing several breaks on skin, bird tried to peck meat, then they went aside and were sitting there until evening. They could peck out the deer only on the following morning. Birds have eaten fresh pig corpses also on the second day. Flock eats carrion very quickly. So 33 Griffon Vultures and 5 CVs have eaten up the deer corpse with weight at 101 kg for 1,5 hour.
3.4. Number
Yu.V.Kostin (1983), judging on the bird concentration on carrion, estimated the total number of CVs in the Crimea at 60 specimens. At the beginning of our studies the highest number of CVs was recorded: in 1987 Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 278 specimens, in 1989 Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 29, and in the year 1990 Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 31 (in the average Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 29,3). Thus, by the moment of our studies the population number declined, in the average, by 51,2%, in comparison with the 1970Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅs (Appak, 1992). On the results of the counts in 1999-2000, the biggest concentration of the CV was 14 specimens. Hence, the number declined in respect to the beginning of our studies by 52,5% and in attitude to data of Yu.V.Kostin (1983) Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ at 76,7%.
Decline of adult bird number could not impact the number of breeding pairs. Data on quantity of living nests in the territory of entire Crimean Nature Reserve in the period of its organization and first years of work, unfortunately, are absent. Only small colony on slopes of Sinabdag ridge and Chernaya mountain is described (Akimov, 1940). In 1935-1936 of the nests of this group 9 chicks were fledged (4,5 per year), and for 12 years of our studies (1989-2000) Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 21 chick (1,8 per year). Thus, the number of cases of the successful nesting declined here by 80,8%. As a whole in the territory of entire Crimean Natural Reserve in 1960-1970Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅs, according to data of Yu.V.Kostin (1983), 5-8 pairs nested (in the average 6,5) CVs per year. During the first three years of our studies (1987-1989) 3,4 pars nested in the average; hence, number of living nests by that time reduced by 48,2%. During the last three years of studies (1998-2000) only one pair nested. Thus, the number of breeding pairs reduced, in respect of beginning of our studies, by 70,6%, and in comparison with 1960Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅs-1970Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅs Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ by 84,6%. And, the last nest was saved just in the center of nature reserve on Chernaya mountain. The nests outside the territory of the Crimean Nature Reserve were not found.
The factors, determining number of the CV population in the Crimea can be conventionally divided into closely connected climatic factors, trophic and anthropogenic ones.
Influence of climatic factors on successful nesting of the CVs earlier was not studied. Yu.V.Kostin (1983) considered that the CVs lay eggs without visible connection (correlation) with nesting conditions and general course of spring. However, by our data, in the years with late abundant snowfalls the CVs donЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅt nest at all. So, 5.03.1989 the height of fresh-fallen snow at nesting sites was 117 cm. In the nest in upper reaches of UluzenЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅ River 31.03 the snow was not melted yet, that was trampled down by birds. The CV pair stayed in this year near nests, repaired them, but has not nested at last. In 1996 snow has fallen down 26.03 with height up to 30 cm and 10.04 Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 8 cm. As a result of that no one pair of the CV did not nest. As regards other favourable climatic factors (strong rain, hail), so their negative influence on successful breeding is possible during incubation of eggs and heating of chicks in the case of disturbance of parents. Probably the late cold springs have the same unfavorable impact on breeding birds, especially during incubation period. So, for example, development of vegetation of nature reserve in the last years delay at this time by 30-40 days.
The food base has decisive impact on the CV number. The reason of the first sharp decrease of their number was a ban of sheep pasturing on Nikitskaya and Babuganskaya yaila as a result of their joining to Nature Reserve in 1973. At the beginning of the 1990Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅs the food base of CVs again sharply was getting worse due to deep crisis in the poultry farming and rabbit-farming. This is, to all probability, served by reason of the second sharp decline of the CV population number in the Crimea, beginning from the year 1991. And if at the end of the 1970Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅs, when birds were forced to look for new sources of food, they could feed by carcasses of wild animals for a certain time (Kostin, 1983), so at the present time this is hardly possible, because their number was reduced considerably. Thus, further existence of the CV population in the Crimea depends on that will these birds be able to find the stable source of food. The food base decline and reduce of CV number increase the role of food competition with the Griffon Vultures, which in contrast to them search food collectively and gather on carrion faster. Flying together by big flocks, the CVs so quickly eat it, that CVs have almost nothing. So, we observed, how on deer carcass 33 Griffon Vultures were concentrated and only 5 Cinereus Vultures. In the next time on carrion 17 Griffon Vultures and only 7 Cinereus Vultures were gathered. We did not observe other food competitors. Ravens are not able to peck up the skin of large animals, therefore they eat only those that is remaining after Griffon Vultures and Cinereus Vultures.
Decline of food base causes also a series of indirect reasons of vulture number decline. In the search of food the birds force to carry out migrations far outside the nature reserve borders, that earlier was not recorded (Akimov, 1940). That increases the danger of negative anthropogenic impact: shooting, trapping, poisoning etc. For the period of our studies 19 cases of loss and trapping of CVs were registered (Table 2).
Analysis of reasons of CV number decline is an evidence that 86,7% of the known cases (n=15) have happened through human fault. 40,0% are for trapping with the purpose of keeping in captivity or for sale (among them two cases (13,3%) of trapping of slightly flying fledglings), per shooting Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 26,7%, per traumas for unknown reasons Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 13,3%, due to disturbance factors, due to strike with electric transmission line and getting into trap Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ 6,7% (for each one).
One of the reasons of vulture number decline Е вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃВЊВ bird disturbance in nesting period. During incubation of eggs and in the first time after chick hatching them leave nest only in the case of disturbance. That increases danger of the loss of egg or chick due to over-cooling or overheating under sun. We know the case, when vultures worried at the beginning of incubation have left the nest. Disturbance was especially dangerous during fledging period. In autumn 1989 forester of nature reserve, going oneЕ вЂДЃвЂќв‚¬ДЃвЂ°пЈЅs round, has flushed vulture fledgling on open place. Disturbed bird, which was not able to fly in a full extent has taken off and was hit against tree, as a result of that it has lost ability to fly. Disturbance, to all probability, is one of the reasons why CVs nest only in protected territory and only on very steep slopes, where no forestry works are carrying out.
In spite of that we did not record the CV loss due to poisoning, danger of the lethal result for birds for this reason was quite high. So, we know the case of simultaneous poisoning of four CVs in Alushta suburbs. Probably, volume of the poisoned food was not great, therefore CVs have eaten up it before CV arrival.
Table 2
Causes of number decreasing of Cinereus Vulture in the Crimea
Year n Place of death Cause
or capture
1988 1 Crimean Nature Reserve Disturbance
(Konek Ridge) fledgling was hit aganist tree)
1 Crimean Nature Reserve Unknown
(upper reaches of Uluzen' River)
1 Unknown Shooting for
preparing stuffed skin
1990 1 Garbage dump Shooting
in Alushta town
1 Crimean Nature
Reserve (Barlakosh site) Unknown
1 In forest near Krasnolesie settlement in Simferopol district Unknown
1993 2 Crimean Nature Reserve trapped for keeping in captivity
1995 1 Alushta water reservoir Unknown (found weaked bird without signs of wounding)
1996 1 Unknown Shooting for preparation of stuffed skin
1996 1 Ternovka settlement in Sevastopol district Shooting
1998 1 Bakhchisarai district Trapped badly flying fledgling
1999 1 Belogorskiy dstrict Trauma (head is broken)
1 Bahchisarai district Trapping (found dead bird with foot, cut off by trap)
1 Starokrymskiy district Trauma of wing
1 Zalesie settlement in Simferopol district Was hit against line of electric transmission line, eye were damaged
1 Sudakskiy district Trapping
2000 1 Simferopol district trapping
1 Crimean Nature Reserve Trapped badly flying fledgling
4. Conclusion
1. The CV number in the Crimea catastrophically decreased. According to data of counts of 1999-2000 the population number is 14 specimens only.
2. The main food base for CV in the Crimea are the hen carcasses, eating at poultry farms.
3. The main reasons of number decrease - insufficient food base, trapping, shooting.
4. Without urgent measures on the CV conservation, this species in the Crimea is doomed to failure. The corresponding measures should be directed for removing of above-mentioned reasons of the number decline. In the first turn - this is additional feeding and conservation. The positive results in this plan are known. So, in the result of additional feeding, the CVs occupied earlier empty nests (Shalna, 1983).
5. We consider that now it is still possible to save from extinction one of the rarest birds of Ukraine and the Crimea - Cinereus Vulture. However the special state program, separate financing, support of all nature-conservation organizations is necessary.
Literature
Abuladze, A.V. 1989. Ob osobennostyash ucheta khishchnykh ptits v gorakh [On peculiarities of the count of birds of prey in mountains]. // Vsesoyuznoe soveshchane po probleme kadastra i ucheta zhivotnogo mira (tez. dokladov) [All-Union Meeting on problems of cadastre and count of wildlife (abstracts)]. Ufa. 1: 377-378.
Akimov, M.P. 1940. Koloniya chernogo grifa (Aegypius monachus ) v Krymsom gosudarstvennom zapovednike [The Cinereus Vulture (Aegypius monachus) in the Crimean State Nature Reserve].// Tr. Krymskogo zapovednika [Proc. of the Crimean Nature Reserve]. 2: 217-227.
Appak, B.A. 1992. Sovremennoe sostoyanie populyatsii chernogo grifa v Krymu [The modern status of the Cinereus Vulture population in the Crimea]. // Okhrana i izuchenie redkikh i ischezayushchikh vidov zhivotnykh v zapovednikah [Conservation and research of rare and endangered animal species in nature reserves]. M. 77-87.
Vinogradov, V.V. 1963. K razmnozheniyu chernogo grifa na Bozdage [On the Cinereus Vulture breeding on Bozdag]. // Ornitologiya [Ornithology]. M., Moscow State Univ. 6: 222-226.
Dementiev, G.P. 1951. Otryad khiashchnye ptitasy [Order Falconiformes]. // Ptitsy Sovetrskogo Soyuza [Birds of the Soviet Union]. M.: Sovetskaya nauka. 1: 258-261.
Kostin, Yu.V. 1983. Ptitsy Kryma [Birds of the Crimea]. M., Nauka. 1-240.
Menzbier, M.A. 1895. Ptitsy Rossii [Birds of Russia]. M. 2: 1-1120.
Osmolovskaya, V.I., Formozov, A.N. 1952. Metody ucheta chislennosti i geograficheskogo raspredeleniya dnevnykh i nochnykh khishchnykh ptits [Methods of count of number and geographic distribution of diurnal and nocturnal birds of prey]. // Metody ucheta chislennosti i geograficheskogo raspredeleniya nazemnykh pozvonochnykh [Methods of count of number and geographic distribution of terrestrial vertebrates]. M.: 68-96.
Rozanov, M.P. 1931. Gnezdovanie chernogo grifa v Krymu [The Cinereus Vulture in the Crimea]. // Sb. rabot po izucheniyu fauny Krymskogo zapovednika [Collection of papers on the study of fauna of the Crimean Nature Reserve]. M.: 90-95.
Senitskiy, A. 1898. K voprosu o nakhozdenii chernogo grifa v Krymu [On question about the Cinereus Vulture discovery in the Crimea]. Sevastopol. 1-6.
Shalna, A.A. 1983. Zimnyaya podkormka khishchnykh ptits v Issyk-Kulskoi kotovine [Winter additional feeding of birds of prey in Issyk-Kul' hollow]. // Okhrana khishchnykh ptits (materialy pervogo soveshchaniya po ekologii i okhrane khishchnykh ptits) [Conservation of birds of prey (Materials of the 1st Meeting on ecology and conservation of birds of prey)]. Moscow: Nauka. 32-35.
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Kostin, Yu.V., Dulitskiy, A.I., Mal'tsev, I.V. BLACK VULTURE (Aegypius monachus L.)
In: Rare animals of the Crimea. Manual. Simferopol', "Tavriya", 1981. 160 p. In Russian.
Pp.74-75.
Inhabits mountains of South Europe and Asia from Spain in the west to Mongolia and China in the east. In majority of places this is resident bird, making only feeding migrations. Everywhere is scanty, in territory of Ukraine is distributed only in the mountain Crimea. Listed in the red Data Book of Ukrainian SSR. Presently nest of Black Vulture are only on territory of the Crimean Nature reserve - Hunting Farm. There are 5-8 pairs, which are breeding annually. Earlier the BV was distributed in the Crimea wider. Biology is studied well.
Pairs are life-longed. For nest setting up, BV chooses large trees. One nest is using many years in succession; in nature reserve there are nests, which in BV live during 40-60 years. Often pair has several nests, situated near each of other and occupying in turn. The single egg of clutch is appearing at the end of March - beginning of April. Incubation - 55 days, chick is staying in the nest 3,5-4 months and begins to fly at the second half of August. BVs are feeding on the offals and carrion.
Immature and non-breeding in the current year birds form the considerable part of the Crimean population. At the present time 50-60 BV are living in the Crimea, judging on their concentrations on the garbage dumps during the cold time of year.
Taking into account a quantity of breeding pairs, the slow rates of breeding of these birds, shooting of BV and destruction of their nests in all cases and under any pretence it should be considered as inadmissible.
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